At a time when colonization was not yet considered an end in itself, the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) was seen as the moment when the European colonial powers came together to divide up the African continent. This is the first time that a European diplomatic meeting has focused exclusively on the question of Africa: it is helping to define common rules for future territorial acquisitions by the countries of Europe.
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In the 19th century, Europeans were present on the African coasts where they established trading posts. trade ; the first explorations inland began by taking the rivers. These explorations are motivated by prospects for commercial exchanges, geographical discoveries or the establishment of missions to evangelize the populations. This sharing of Africa took the form of treaties signed between European travelers (whether sent by their government or not) and African sovereigns.
Sharing Africa: the Congo question
A vast territory still little explored attracts covetousness: the congo basin. The Portuguese claim their former presence there but must come to terms with the inclinations of British, French and Belgian imperialism. In the years 1870-1880, France and Belgium competed through two explorers who traveled the region: the naval officer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was in the service of France and the American journalist Henry Morton Stanley worked on behalf of the Belgian King Leopold II. In 1884, Great Britain recognized Portugal’s rights over the mouth of the Congo: this treaty led to the organization of an international conference in Berlin.
In Europe, in the 1880s, colonial lobbies existed but the idea of colonization was not yet acquired by governments or by public opinion. France and Great Britain already possess territories in Africa North (Algeria, Egypt) and Senegal. The King of the Belgians Leopold II will commit his personal fortune to the Congo and prove to be a clever strategist to promote his interests there: he notably creates an association for philanthropic purposes supposed to fight against slavery, the International African Association (in 1876) and the International Association of the Congo (in 1882). Leopold II wishes to give himself a reputation as a benefactor although his motivations are purely economic and political. Multiple testimonies establishing the unworthy exploitation of the Congolese population (slavery, malnutrition, mutilation), will lead to an international protest movement led by Great Britain. Military expeditions are designated as responsible for massacres while they are intended to fight slavery, an objective proclaimed by the Berlin Conference for the attribution of the Congo to the King of the Belgians.
The stakes of the Berlin Conference
The German Chancellor Bismarck hitherto preoccupied with European political issues (Alsace-Lorraine, Russian policy), turned in turn to the acquisition of overseas territories. During the Berlin Conference, there is a transfer of European issues to the African space. Bismarck is at the initiative of this conference which takes place between November 15, 1884 and February 26, 1885: fourteen countries are present but no African representative is invited. The discussions are supported by a map of Africa because diplomats do not master the African geographical space, while this question is becoming decisive for relations between European states. The carving up of Africa is not on the agenda of the Conference; the following subjects occupied most of the discussions: the rules for the future occupation of the African coasts, trade in the Congo Basin, freedom of navigation on the Congo and Niger rivers.
The Berlin Conference leads to important decisions: the principle of free exchange economy is confirmed on the Niger and Congo rivers, thus responding to Franco-British rivalries; Europe is giving itself a civilizing mission by claiming to open the African continent to economic development, thanks to international trade. Slavery is proclaimed prohibited: Europeans are now focusing on the interior of the continent to fight against the slave trade, while developing forced labor practices. The Congo has become one of the main issues of the Conference: the King of the Belgians manages to have the idea of political neutrality accepted in the Congo Basin, while affirming freedom of trade there. In 1908, this region eighty times larger than Belgium, will become the Belgian Congo.
Sharing the African continent is taking place
The Berlin Conference finally leads to the delimitation of colonial borders. Establishment rules are defined: each power must establish a zone of influence whose contours are delimited, to confirm its political and economic domination. To be recognized for a territory, the occupation must be effective, which will lead the European States to design practices of colonization. After the Berlin Conference, the period of military expeditions begins in order to subjugate the populations and to appropriate the territories.
In the 1890s, the whole of Africa was the subject of negotiations and many bilateral treaties were signed between Europeans. These diplomatic decisions result in the sending of commissions responsible for delimiting the new borders. The end of the 19th century offers the picture of a competition between European imperialisms, which causes crises between France and Great Britain, in particular in Fashoda in 1898: it results in a Franco-British convention which limits the respective zones of influence of the two colonial powers.
At the start of the 20th century, Africa was almost entirely divided between Europeans: only Ethiopia and Liberia retained their independence, as well as South Africa who accesses theautonomy in 1910. The rest of the continent was colonized in various ways: with the protectorate system in Tunisia and Morocco, France maintained their previous sovereignty in law but became their true administrator. In the French territories of sub-Saharan Africa, the protectorates set up quickly became colonies. Some are first granted to chartered companies that practice forced labor (in French Equatorial Africa); this type of management disappears to give way to the direct government of the metropolis.
France grouped its colonies into two federations: French West Africa (Senegal, French Sudan, Guinea and Ivory Coast) in 1895, which included Senegal, Upper Senegal and Niger, Mauritania, Guinea, Ivory Coast , Dahomey in 1904 and French Equatorial Africa (Gabon, Middle-Congo, Chad, Oubangui-Chari) in 1910. Within these territories, borders were also created: each colony was divided into districts headed by a commander . Other territories become settlements: this is the case of Algeria conquered in 1830, which depends on the Ministry of the Interior and is divided into three departments; this is also the case for Namibia for Germany and Kenya for Great Britain. In 1914, the borders of Africa are fixed, even if some modifications take place after the First World War, when Germany loses its colonies. France and Great Britain carve out the “share of the Lion at the expense of Portugal, Belgium, Spain, Italy and Germany.
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